Entire-Leaved Gumweed - Grindelia stricta

• Asteraceae (Aster family) ^[E-flora]

Hazards

• Grindelia Sp; "Large doses may produce kidney and stomach irritation." ^{[Tilgner HMHE]}
• G. robusta and G. squarrosa; Overdose may cause "nausea and vomiting; slow, weak pulse; slow, shallow breathing; subnormal temperature; stupor, or dilated pupils" ^{[MMN Blumgarten]}

Food

• Grindelia Sp; Substitution Food Leaves used by Mendocino indians as a substitute for tea. ^{[Moerman NAE]}

Medicinal Uses

• Flowering Tops; "Tincture (Fresh Herb, [1:2], Dry Herb, [1:5, 70%alcohol]), 15-40 drops to 5X a day." ^{[Moore(1995)]}
• Grindelia Sp; Coughs & Congestion: Budding tops are expectorant.^{[Tilgner HMHE]}
  • Dosage: "1:1 fresh + dry strength liquid extract: 10-40 drops 1-4 times per day." ^{[Tilgner HMHE]}
• Grinelia Sp;
  • Topical: Part of a herbal formula for treating poison oak. "relieves swelling, itching and pain." ^{[Tilgner HMHE]}
  • Root: Root boiled to make a tea for the liver. The dried and powdered root made a medicine for purging and hemorrhages.^{[Sweet CEUPW]}
  • "Spanish Americans boiled buds and flowers until water was down to a pint". This was taken for kidney troubles ^{[Sweet CEUPW]}
  • Plant Decoction: Small doses taken daily for small pox, 1/2 cup/day for measles and a 1/2 cup/day taken hot for pneumonia.^{[Sweet CEUPW]}
  • Flowering tops, collected in the spring, were used as a blood purifier.^{[Sweet CEUPW]}
    • also; throat & lung problems, and a decoction used as a mouthwash for toothache.^{[Sweet CEUPW]}

Description

Synonyms
"an extremely variable species and so has been described under a number of different names." ^[PCBC2004]

• Grindelia integrifolia DC. ^{[E-flora][PCBC2004]}
• Grindelia integrifolia var. macrophylla ^[E-flora]
• Grindelia macrophylla ^{[E-flora][PCBC2004]}
• Grindelia hirsutula 1/3 Confidence, This species has many var. and ssp., all of them syn wih 1/3 confidence. A single unresolved status. ^{[ThePlantList]}

General Often somewhat woody at base. More or less succulent.^[HNW] 15-80cm tall.^[PCBC2004] nearly glabrous or with long, soft hairs. [IFBC]^[E-flora]
Lifecycle Perennial.^[HNW]
Flowers Yellow ray flowers.^[HNW] 10-35 or more [IFBC]^[E-flora], single to several on leafy stalks.^[WildPNW] 10-35 or more; involucral bracts slightly or moderately sticky.[IFBC]^[E-flora]
Fruits Achenes.^[HNW] "compressed, scarcely nerved; pappus of 2-several deciduous, firm bristles."[IFBC]^[E-flora]
Leaves Leaves fleshy, oblong to lanceolate, broad, entire or sharply toothed^[HNW] and "resin-dotted. basal leaves lance-shaped, up to 40 cm long; stem leaves alternate, stalkless and often clasping at their bases." ^[PCBC2004]
Stem Stout, several, somewhat hairy.^[WildPNW]
Root Taproot.^[PCBC2004]
Properties Grindelia Spp. Resinous, sticks to teeth, pleasant. ^{[Tilgner HMHE]}
Habitat Salt marshes, tidal flats^[HNW], wet meadows^[WildPNW], dry beaches and coastal bluffs.[IFBC]^[E-flora]
Range Common in coastal BC; S to N CA. [IFBC]^[E-flora]
Status Native ^[E-flora]
Notes A highly variable species. "Douglas (1995) concluded that it was best to recognize only one environmentally variable species."[IFBC] ^[E-flora]

Uses of Other Related Sp

The genus Grindelia includes some twenty-five species, six or eight of which are found in South America and the remainder occurring in the United States west of the Mississippi. They are coarse perennial or biennial herbs, being occasionally shrub-like. Most, if not all, of the species produce a resinous exudation on the stem and leaves and especially on the flower-heads.^{[Remington USD20]}

The New World Grindelia, with approximately 60 species, belongs to the tribe Astereae, subtribe Soladiginae in the large family Asteraceae. This genus occurs in western North America from southern Mexico north to Canada and Alaska, and from the Great Plains to the Pacific coast. In South America, it occurs at high elevations in the southern part of the continent. Although the greatest concentration of species (i.e. 22) is in the xerophytic sites of the south-western USA, only three species are widespread in this area: G. camporum, G. aphanactis, and G. squarrosa." "...only 14 species from the large genus Grindelia have been chemically investigated." ^{[Wickens PAL]}

A resinous exudation is common to the various species of the genus, being most abundant in the flower-heads, and it is possible that medicinal properties are common to the genus. ^{[Sayre MM-6]}

Gum plants, including Grindelia camporum, G. humilis, G. robusta, and G. squarrosa, were used by Native Americans to treat bronchial problems, skin irritations caused by poison ivy, and other complaints (Vogel 1970). Resin from G. camporum still provides a valuable remedy for bronchial asthma (Chevallier 1996). Both an antispasmodic and expectorant, it helps relax muscles of the smaller bronchial passages and clear congested mucus. It may also desensitize nerve endings in the bronchial tree and slow the heart rate, both leading to easier breathing. Moreover, this resin has been used to treat whooping cough, hay fever, and cystitis. ^{[Langenheim PR]}

• Grindelia Sp.; Fluid extracts of the leaves and flowering tops used as a stimulating expectorant in Bronchitis. ^[Stuhr,1947] Flowering bud for Wet cough, dyspnea.^[CBMed]
  • Used "for smallpox, pneumonia, measles, asthma, bronchitis, whooping cough, running sores, toothaches, and throat and lung trouble."^{[Turner&Bell1]}
  • "flower, bud (Grindelia spp.). Topically for poison ivy, oak, and sumac; also insect bites. Demulcent." ^{[Mars NFA]}
  • "Grindelia bagasse[residue] has been tested as an animal-feed amendment: it is nontoxic, has a moderate protein content (8-10%), and is acceptable in up to 50% of lamb diets....Grindelia bagasse has about half the protein content of alfalfa hay...".^{[Hoffmann,1986]}
  • "...a series of diterpene acids including 6-hydroxy grindelic acid, isolated from Grindelia humilis, showed deterrent activity towards the aphid Schizaphis graminum (Rose etal. 1981)." ^{[Wickens PAL]}

Grindelia camporum- Great Valley Gum Plant [California]^[PSW]

• Synonym:
  • G. robusta ^{[SSBMHerbalManual][Wiki-1]}
  • G. squarrosa ^{[SSBMHerbalManual]}
  • G. camporum is a syn of G. hirsutula [ThePlantList-2]...though it appears that every species is a syn of G. hirsutula. ^{[PersonalNote]} G. robusta ^{[ThePlantList-3]} and G. squarrosa are each a 2/3 confidence accepted species in their own right.^{[ThePlantList-4]}
• "The plant grows in the Southwestern U.S. and in Mexico."^[PDR] "Its diploid populations occur in the Sierra Nevada foothills and the North Coast ranges; the tetraploids grow in xerophytic habitats in the Central Valley region of California, where it is often found in saline flats and in disturbed fields and roadsides." ^{[Wickens PAL]}
• Aerial Parts; Used as a Bronchial spasmolytic, used to treat asthma. Daily Dose: 4-6g ^{[Capasso PQR]}
• "Decoction used for dermatitis, especially from poison oak; also for boils, wounds." ^[Bocek,1984]
• "Thc terpenoid resin produced by Grindelia camporum is also believed to function as an antifeedant, and is even produced in sufficient quantities to be considered a potential source of biocrude" ^{[Wickens, EB]}
  "...a conspicuously resinous, herbaceous perennial found in the Central Valley area of California. The resin is produced in multicellular glands, which occur on the surfaces of stems, leaves, and involucres. The resin is composed of grindelic acid and several of its derivatives. These labdane diterpenes are similar to the resin acids that constitute rosin, a principal product of the naval stores industry^{[Footnote 1]}, and it seems likely that resin extracted from Grindelia would have uses similar to those of rosin."^{[Hoffmann,1986]}

Grindelia robusta (Gum Plant)^{[WUM Henkel]}

Gum used medicinally.^[Ethchumash] Given in full and frequent doses as a specific for permanent relief of asthmatic breathing. Used for chronic spasmodic bronchial coughs, in chronic bronchitis, and in combination with other specific agents for whooping cough. Use to treat hay fever, poison ivy, insect bites and indolent old ulcers.^[Ellingwood]

• Dose: Fluid Extract of the leaves and flowering tops. Dose; one-half to one fluid dram. Solid Extract. Dose; 5 to 15 grains.^[Ellingwood] crushed leaf or liquid extracts. ^[PTH]
• Activities; "The influence of the agent is exhibited on the heart, at first by a quickened pulse, subsequently by retarding it. It elevates the blood pressure at first, subsequently lowering it. In overdoses it is toxic, the specific influence of the agent on the respiratory nerves being shown by paralysis of the muscles of respiration." ^[Ellingwood]
• Insecticide: Karok - "Decoction of roots used as a shampoo to kill hair lice."^{[Moerman NAE]}
• Leaves eaten as raw greens by Karok ^{[Moerman NAE]}
• Eye Medicine: "Grindelia robusta is a good remedy in milder and non-purulent iritis and general inflammation of the eyes. Grindelia robusta 3 drachms; aqua pura 4 ounces. Soak a thin cloth in solution., then apply to the eyes and keep wet. " ^{[Peterson(1905)]}
• Combinations: "Cough from asthma, yerba santa and grindelia robusta are the best when combined." ^{[Peterson(1905)]}
• Herb permitted for oral use. Can cause gastric irritation (rarely) "Flowering top permitted as traditional cough remedy." ^{[Smet, AEHD-2]}

Grindelia squarrosa(Pursh) Dunal curly-cup gumweed (curlycup gumweed)

[South central & South east B.C.]^[E-flora] Scaly grindelia (G. squarrosa) "has a wider distribution than the gum plant [G. robusta], being quite common on the plains and prairies from the Saskatchewan to Minnesota, south to Texas and Mexico, and westward to California...This species is very similar to the gum plant, with the exception that it is smaller and does not have the gummy apearance of thr former." ^{[WUM Henkel]}

• Caution: High doses may irritate kidney and/or stomach (AHP). ^{[HMH Duke]}
• Dosage: 2–3 tsp(1.8–2.1 g) herb/cup tea (MAD).^{[HMH Duke]} crushed leaf or liquid extracts. ^[PTH]
• Activities; Extracts showed antibacterial and antifungal activity.^{[McChesney et al.]} Abortifacient; Antibacterial; Antidote; Antiedemic; Antiinflammatory; Antiseptic; Antitussive; Contraceptive; Expectorant; Fungicide; Sedative; Stimulant. ^{[HMH Duke]} "Expectorant, antispasmodic, nerve sedative." ^{[Peterson(1905)]}
• "This species and others of the genus" are used to treat asthma, are anti-spasmodic and stomachic. ^{[Krochmal et al.]}
• Poison Ivy: Used externally for treatment of poison ivy.^{[Krochmal et al.][Montana]}
• Anti-malarial: "grindelia squarrosa is specific in its anti-malarial properties" as well as for treating headaches in general.^[Ellingwood]
• A decoction used for syphilis, to wash skin sores, and for skin lesions. The sticky flowered heads rubbed around eyes to relieve snow blindness.^[Montana]
• Used to treat various kidney and bladder disorders, but it causes some irritation to these organs.^[Montana]
• Unspecified part used by the Cree to treat gonorrhea and to prevent pregnancy ^[PrairieMed]
• "It was also used by folk practitioners for cancers of the spleen and stomach." ^[PrairieMed]
• "Extracts from Grindelia squarrosa have been processed and patented in the past for applications in the food, rubber, coatings, textile and polymer industries".^{[Wickens PAL]}
• Seed + Pericarp; 20% oil (petroleum ether)on dry wt., Fatty Acids; Composition (%: Saturated – 6.0; 18:1 – 28.0; 18:2 – 61.0; 18:3 – 0.5) ^[LLCEOPS]
• "Physiological action: In continued physiological doses it will produce an almost unbearable fullness in the head, followed by pain in the left eyeball and later also of the right eyeball. Pain in the knee joint, pain in the whole region of the liver and spleen, which becomes more severe. All are of the nature of acute rheumatism. To move the eyeballs is terribly painful and the pain appears to reflect backwards into the brain. Later interruption of respiration takes place, so that it can sometimes only be carried on by will power. This will show that its influence is on the nervous system in such a manner as to affect the optic nerve first and lastly the par vagum, thus interrupting respiration. The drug, however, is never given in such large doses and therefore is a safe remedy to use; but if it is taken in 1/2 to 1 drachm doses often repeated its physiological effect will be noticed as above."^{[Peterson(1905)]}

Grindelia squarrosa
Seed + Pericarp
Mass of 1,000, g: 0.7
Oil (petroleum ether), % on dry wt.: 20.0
Iodine value, % J2: 138.0
Saponification value, mg KOH: 186.0 ^[LLCEOPS]

G. robusta & G. squarrosa; Externally and locally the drug is sedative and mildly astringent. Synergetic with motor depressants and chiefly eliminated by the kidneys. The drug is feebly toxic but can be a gastro-intestinal irritant. The fluid extract should be well diluted when applied externally and the extract is incompatible with aqueous preparations.^{[Butler,1908]}

Phytochemicals

• G. squarrosa; 20% resin. In the resin-free portion of the plant, with about 0.3% essential oil (largely borneol), tannin, saponins, and the alkaloid grindelin.^[PrairieMed] G. camporum (Aerial Parts); "Diterpene acids, saponins, tannins, volatile oil, flavonoids" ^{[Capasso PQR]}
• The essential oils borneol, terpineol, a-pinene, and b-pinene were identified in Grindelia robusta Nutt. and G. squarrosa.^{[Hoffmann,1986]}
• "Eight...species were found to contain the flavonoids apiginin, luteolin, kaempferol, and quercetin, along with their methyl ethers and glycosides. Simple phenolic acids have been isolated from 3 Grindelia spp...."^{[Hoffmann,1986]}
• "...the major components isolated from 7 Grindelia spp., including G. camporum, G. robusta, and G. squarrosa, are a group of labdane diterpene acids that include grindelic acid and its derivatives."^{[Hoffmann,1986]}
• "Diterpenes: resinous compounds, for example, the antitussive, antimicrobial grindelic acid in gumweed (Grindelia spp.)" ^[BMWH]
• Salicylic acid occurs in such diverse plants as Salix spp., ...Grindelia spp.,...". ^{[Ramawat NP]}
• "Grindelanes, labdane-type diterpenoids ...Grindelia species, show significant antifeedant activity (35)."^{[Waller Allelochemicals]}
• "Secondary absorbers normally grow in areas with low to medium soil-selenium concentrations and can accumulate from 25 to 100 mg Se kg^-1 dry weight." ^{[Barker HPN]}
• "Grindelia resins are clear, non-volatile terpenoid mixtures that are insoluble in water but soluble in organic solvents. Stable, inert and amorphous, they become very sticky when heated at low temperatures and are fusible with no sharp melting point." ^{[Wickens PAL]}
• "In our studies we have also observed a large amount of variability in the quality and quantity of resin produced between and within Grindelia species. The amount of crude resin extracted with dichloromethane has ranged from 5-18% of the dried biomass. When the crude resin is partitioned with sodium carbonate, its resin acid fraction may vary from 80-55% and the neutral component, correspondingly, from 20-45%. Moreover, the relative amounts of the various diterpene acids also vary within the species; grindelic acid, for example, has been found to constitute any amount from 20-60% of the resin acid fraction....Preliminary genetic and breeding studies have shown that much of the variation in the crude resin yield and composition is genetic, although phenology, population structure, climate and soil types may also contribute to this variation." ^{[Wickens PAL]}
• "The aerial parts of Grindelia stricta afforded in addition to known compounds 21 diterpenes, all closely related to grindelic acid. The aerial parts from G. paludosa also contain these diterpenes together with modhephenepoxide, while the roots afforded two tropone derivatives and a tetralin, which is also present in the leaves. Grindelic acid and several derivatives were also isolated from G. camporum. " ^{[BOHLMANN et al.]}

G. robusta Essential Oil

• "Essential oil yield of G. robusta aerial parts was found to contain 45 components representing 74.9% of the oil....The essential oil showed a relevant antioxidant activity in vitro indicating that the plant can be considered also for this property in phytotherapy." ^{[Fraternale,2007]}

Crude Resin Content
* G. camporum - Natural stands (10.3-15.6%) - Cultivated stands (7.9-9.7%, 8.8-11.2%) ^{[Ravetta et al.]}
* G. stricta var. platyphylla - Natural stands (9.6-10.1%) - Cultivated stands (8.9%) ^{[Ravetta et al.]}
* G. stricta var. stricta - Natural stands (5.2%) - Culivated stands (3.3%) ^{[Ravetta et al.]}
* G. chiloensis - Natural stands (16.1-37.1%) - Cultivated stands (10.4-14.6%) ^{[Ravetta et al.]}

• "Crude resin (CR) content of the year’s biomass (stems, leaves, and flowers) was significantly different among populations (P < 0.01); CR content was 23.4%, 17.4%. and 16.7% for the three populations studied." ^{[Ravetta1996]}
• G. camporum; "...we conclude that most of the resin is produced in the resin glands on the surface of the plant." ^{[Hoffmann1986]}G. chiloensis; "Preliminary studies have shown that Grindelia chiloensis has higher resin contents than Grindelia camporum...". "Average individual plant net primary productivity (NPP) was estimated with a single harvest at the end of the growing season (April 1995) and ranged between 92 g and 168 g dry weight (DW)." ^{[Ravetta1996]}
• "Crude resin (CR) content was highest for all four accessions of G. chiloensis, with the tetraploid accessions having the highest CR contents. G. camporum and G. stricta var. platyphylla were intermediate in CR content. CR content in G. stricta var. stricta was 3.3%. In general, CR contents were lower than previously found for these species. A possible explanation for this is a reduction in resin production due to high water and nutrient availability." ^{[Ravetta et al.]}

"With this study we have shown that there are indeed two distinct types of resins within the selected North American species of Grindelia. In addition, collections from the Rocky Mountain area displayed considerably more variation in resin acid composition than the collections from the Pacific Coast states. These results suggest that the differences observed in quantitative resin acid composition represent differences in genotype rather than in growing conditions of the plants." Timmermann lists G. stricta ssp. stricta under the 'squarrosa subgroup' of resin acid composition , along with species such as G. camporum, G. robusta, G. squarrosa and others. ^{[Timmermann1987]}

G. stricta subsp. stricta was found to contain 12.9% and 10.8% crude resin, with 7.4% and 5.3% resin acids. ^{[Timmermann1987]}

Grindelia, commonly called gum weed because the plants are usually tacky or sticky to the touch, has been studied in detail. The tackiness is from the mixed terpenoid and flavonoid resin, not true gum as the implied by the name (Chapters 1 and 7). Apparently, Grindelia is characterized by a diversity of resin glands, and G. camporum has two types of resin-secreting tissues (Figure 3-8): (1) multicellular trichomes in shallow pits on the surface of stems, leaves, and phyllaries (bracts surrounding the flower heads) and (2) canals in the leaf mesophyll and stem cortex (Hoffmann et al. 1984). Resinous trichomes are most abundant on the involucres of the flower heads, densely distributed on leaves, but sparse on stems. Accordingly, resin constituted 20% of dry weight of flower heads, 14% of leaves, and only 2% of stems (Hoffmann and McLaughlin 1986). Furthermore, because resin was easily extracted from Grindelia flower heads compared to the stem, Hoffmann and McLaughlin concluded that most resin is produced by trichomes rather than in the few internal canals. Thus flower heads are the most important source of resin for use, with leaves secondary (Chapter 10). ^{[Langenheim PR]}

Allelopathy

• "Grindelanes, labdane-type diterpenoids... from... Grindelia species, show significant antifeedant activity (35)." ^{[Waller Allelochemicals]}

Remediation

• Very promising data provides an analysis of... Grindelia squarosa with Se content in tissues higher than 1000 mg/kg. It is obvious that these species are suitable for Se phytoextraction. ^{[Lichtfouse CF]}

References

• E-flora - Grindelia stricta, In Klinkenberg, Brian. (Editor) 2014. E-Flora BC: Electronic Atlas of the Plants of British Columbia, http://eflora.bc.ca, Lab for Advanced Spatial Analysis, Department of Geography, University of British Columbia, Vancouver. Accessed: 11/11/2014, http://linnet.geog.ubc.ca/Atlas/Atlas.aspx?sciname=Grindelia%20stricta
• Bocek,1984 - Ethnobotany of Costanoan Indians, California, Based on Collections by John P. Harrington, BARBARA R. BOCEK, Economic Botany, 38(2), 1984, pp. 240-255
• BOHLMANN et al. - Diterpenes Related to Grindelic Acid and Further Constituents from <i>Grindelia</i> Species, Ferdinand Bohlmann, Maniruddin Ahmed, Naleen Borthhakur, Michael Wallmeyer, Jasmin Jakupovic, Robert M King and Harold Robinson, Phytochemistry Vol. 21 No. 1, pp.167-172, 1982
• Ethchumash - Ethnobotany of Chumash Indians, California, Based on Collections by John P. Harrington, JAN TIMBROOK, Economic Botany, 44(2), 1990,pp. 236-253
• Hoffmann,1986. - Grindelia camporum: Potential Cash Crop for the Arid Southwest, JOSEPH J. HOFFMANN AND STEVEN P. MCLAUGHLIN, Economic Botany, 40(2), 1986, pp. 162-169
• Krochmal et al. - Useful Native Plants in the American Southwestern Deserts, A. KROCHMAL, S. PAUR ANY P. DUISBERG
• McChesney et al. - Co-evaluation of Plant Extracts as Petrochemical Substitutes and for Biologically Active Compounds, JAMES D. MCCHESNEY AND ROBERT P. ADAMS, Economic Botany, 39(1), 1985,pp. 74-86
• Ravetta1996 - Grindelia chiloensis resin and biomass production in its native environment, Damian A. Ravetta, Fernando Goffman , Eduardo Pagano, Steven P. McLaughlin, Industrial Crops and Products 5, 1996 235-238
• Ravetta et al. - Resin production of Grindelia accessions under cultivation, Damian A. Ravetta, Abdel Anouti, Steven P. McLaughlin, Industrial Crops and Products 5 (1996) 197-201
• Stuhr,1947 - The Distribution, Abundance and Uses of Wild Drug Plants in Oregon and Southern California, Ernst T. Stuhr, Economic Botany, Vol. 1, No. 1 (Jan. - Mar., 1947), pp. 57-68
• ThePlantList http://www.theplantlist.org/tpl1.1/record/gcc-136619, Accessed Sept 25, 2015
  • 2 - http://www.theplantlist.org/tpl1.1/record/gcc-18513
  • 3 - http://www.theplantlist.org/tpl1.1/record/gcc-4146
  • 4 - http://www.theplantlist.org/tpl1.1/record/gcc-87994
• Wiki - Wikipedia.org
  • 1 - https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Grindelia_camporum, Accessed Sept 29, 2015
• Timmermann1987 - Quantitative Variation of Grindelane Diterpene Acids in 20 Species of North American Grindelia, BARBARA N. TIMMERMANN, STEVEN P. McLAUGHLIN and JOSEPH J. HOFFMANN, BiochemicalSystema~caandEcology,Vol.15,No.4, pp.401-410,1987.
• Turner&Bell - The Ethnobotany of the Coast Salish Indians of Vancouver Island, Nancy Chapman Turner & Marcus A. M. Bell, Department of Biology, University of Victoria, Victoria, British Columbia, Canada. Submitted for publication 9 June 1969.

Footnotes

1. "Naval stores" is the generic term for a large class of chemicals, including turpentine, fatty acids, rosins recovered from tall oil, gum and wood rosin, and their derivatives. Rosin, which is a complex mixture of diterpene resin acids, is used widely in diverse industrial applications".[Hoffmann,1986]